India:
Large Differences between North and South
India
has one of the worst female mortality rates in the world, with a
gender ratio of 0.97. That is, there are only 97 women alive for
every 100 men, well below the 105 women in North America and Europe.
But these aggregate numbers hide the inequality within India. For
example, the southern state of Kerala has a ratio of 1.04. The northern
states have extremely low numbers: Utter Pradesh has 0.89 and Punjab’s
is 0.87.
Amartya Sen studied
this regional inequality and found a distinct split based on geography.
States in the Northern and Western region of India have higher ratios
of female mortality than states in the South and East. In fact, he
asserted that with only a couple minor exceptions, every state in
the North and East has lower female ratios than every state in the
South and West. Sen noted “a social and cultural divide across
India, splitting the country” in half, with respect to female
mortality and gender bias before birth (Sen 2001).
The map (above) shows this
geographical split. It measures the ratio of girls to boys, reflecting
not only the mortality rates of early childhood, but also the sex
bias before birth which can result in sex-selective abortions.
Kerala:
Success due to Progressive Social Programs
The southern
state of Kerala has had the greatest success. Its demographics are
more typical of a middle-income country, with a female-male ratio
of 1.05, similar to Europe and North America. Kerala is notable
in India for its progressive social programs, such as accessible
health care, educational opportunities, land reform and many others.
This has resulted in increased opportunities for women. The female
literacy rate is higher than the rest of India. Women have more
opportunism to work outside the home. Property ownership and inheritance
among women is higher too; in some areas of Kerala, property ownership
is usually passed through women. The factors increase women’s
agency, which improves female mortality.
Economic
Growth: No automatic key to success
By economics
measurements, some states in the north and west of India could be
considered the most successful. Punjab and Harayana are among the
richest in the country; Gujarat and Maharashtra are among those
with the fastest economic growth. However, their gender ratios were
as low as states in the region with no or slow economic growth.
Therefore, economic resources, prosperity and GNP growth do not
appear to be major factors in reducing female mortality. Higher
income appears to improve overall mortality, but does not improve
the female ratio. In other words, overall mortality decreases, but
boys benefit more than girls.
The north and
western states are varied in terms of economic conditions and growth.
However, Sen found that one common characteristic among the states
in this region is that they have “given much more room to
religion-based sectarian politics than have the east or the south,
where religion-center parties have had very little success”
(Sen 2001).
Some
Factors Hard to Predict
With some factors,
it is hard to predict whether they will improve female mortality.
For example, Murthi studied access to health care to see if scarcity
exacerbates the gender bias, due to boys receiving preferential
access to resources over girls. Conversely, when opportunities increase
(through increase parental literacy or high per-capita income) it
is not always clear whether these advantages are shared evenly throughout
families, or if the benefits are distributed mainly to the boy children.
However, Murthi
found that increased female literary, education and labor force
participation increased women’s empowerment and reduced gender
mortality bias. He found that increased literacy can have the most
powerful influence and can affect change more quickly than other
social factors.
Case
Study: Lessons in Development
As a case study,
India shows that economic growth is not a predicator of improved
female mortality. Female literacy and education can help empower
women not only in their lives, but in their opportunity to live.
Female labor force participation and property ownership can be key
contributors, too. There is some debate about the degree to which
each factor contributes to the issue of gender bias in mortality.
However, there is agreement among scholars that empowerment of women
improves their agency and reduces gender biased mortality.
References
Chasin, Barbara,
Franke, Richard W., (1991) “The Kerala Difference,”
New York Review of Books, October 24, 1991.
Murthi, Mamta,
et al, Mortality, (1995) “Fertility and Gender Bias in India:
A District Level Analysis”, June 1995.
Sen, A. (2001),
“Many
Faces of Gender Inequality”, The Frontline, October 27,
2001.
Sen, A. (1990).
"More Than 100 Million Women Are Missing"
New York Review of Books (12/20/90): 61-66.
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